# Thymosin Alpha-1 References: The Source List

> Thymosin Alpha-1 references: the full cited source list behind this digest, with DOIs and PubMed links - Goldstein 1977, the ETASS and TESTS sepsis trials, the COVID-19 and hepatitis studies, and the comprehensive reviews.

Every claim on this site maps to one of these sources. DOIs and PubMed identifiers included.

## How to read this list

These are the primary sources behind every numbered claim on the site, from the 1977 structural characterization to the 2025 phase-3 sepsis trial. Where a result is null or marginal, the summary on the relevant page says so - the citation does not change that. The list runs heavily toward randomized trials and comprehensive reviews; it leans, as the field does, on hepatitis, sepsis, COVID-19, and immune-reconstitution research. Foreign brand names are omitted on purpose; the generic name is thymalfasin throughout. Full numbered entries with DOIs and PubMed links are below.

## References

[1] Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(2):725-729. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/265536/
[2] Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23327199/
[3] Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39814420/
[4] Billich A. Thymosin alpha-1. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58(10):886-889. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11381492/
[5] Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16741252/
[6] Dominari A, Hathaway III D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33362999/
[7] Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019;9:873. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31555601/
[8] Ciancio A, Andreone P, Kaiser S, et al. Thymosin alpha-1 with peginterferon alfa-2a/ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C not responsive to IFN/ribavirin: an adjuvant role? J Viral Hepat. 2012;19 Suppl 1:52-59. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22233415/
[9] Dinetz E, Lee E. Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials. Altern Ther Health Med. 2024;30(2):8-15. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38308608/
[10] Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, et al. Serum thymosin α1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 2016;186(1):39-45. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27350088/
[11] Kim BH, Lee YJ, Kim W, et al. Efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 plus peginterferon alfa-2a combination therapy compared with peginterferon alfa-2a monotherapy in HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B: a prospective, multicenter, randomized, open-label study. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2012;47(8-9):1048-1055. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22726105/
[12] Gao D, Zhang X, Zhang J, et al. Expression of thymosin alpha1-thymopentin fusion peptide in Pichia pastoris and its characterization. Arch Pharm Res. 2008;31(11):1471-1476. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19023544/
[13] Zhu Y, Lu Y, Zhong YQ. [Preparation and properties of Talpha1 loaded injectable sustained release microspheres]. Yao Xue Xue Bao. 2007;42(2):211-215. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17518054/
[14] Li Y, Chen H, Li X, et al. A new immunomodulatory therapy for severe sepsis: Ulinastatin Plus Thymosin alpha 1. J Intensive Care Med. 2009;24(1):47-53. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19033321/

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The unredacted file on Thymosin Alpha-1: every study logged and cited, the null result and the not-approved status stamped in plain sight, the banned brand name blacked out on purpose - a research digest, not a clinic, a vendor, or a prescription.